Classification of Programming Languages

Scripting languages (Perl, Python, JavaScript, VBScript)
Non-scripting languages (C, C++, C#, VB.NET, Java)

Types of Programming Languages
Job control languages and shells
Unix shell / MS-DOS COMMAND.COM/ Apple Script

GUI scripting
automate multiple user actions - "macros" / OS dependent

Application-specific languages
QuakeC,  Emacs Lisp

Web browser based
JavaScript; VBScript , XSLT (XML), AJAX

Text processing languages
Unix (AWK, sed, grep)

General-purpose dynamic languages
TCL/ Python, Perl

Extension/embeddable languages
Action Script, python for GIMP , Adobe Acrobat (for scripting PDF files).
Python for Blender

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_programming_languages

Solid State Hard Drives

Solid State Hard Drives give performances 100 to 200 times than fastest magnetic hard drives. Other than speed reliability and durability are advnatages. Solid-states drives are reliable in vibration and shock as there are no moving components in the device.

Basic components of a typical solid-state hard drive.

Solid staed drives are made up of many SDRAM modules stacked on an array with a the supporting battery. They are very fast but the price is high. They are used in PCMCIA cards, flash cards, etc. Solid state hard drives are made up entirely of RAM modules. It uses standard SDRAM modules to store information. SDRAM is volatile memory. it loses its information when there is no power. A rechargeable lithium-ion battery used to provide power when AC power is unavailable.

A high-end magnatic hard drive has an I/O rate of about 60 to 90 IO s/sec. A solid-state disk in comparison can range from 5000 to 9000 IO s/sec. A high-end conventional hard drive has an average access time of 6 to 8 milliseconds. A solid-state disk in comparison has an average access time of 50 to 100 microseconds. Applications like video editing and mission critical issues can take advantage of the speed benefits.


Some Interesting Hardware Articles

• How It Works: Binary
• How It Works: Bus Mastering
• How It Works: 3D Audio
• How CPUs Are Made
• How It Works: AMD Athlon CPU
• How It Works: Holographic Storage
• How It Works: Bump Mapping
• How It Works: Computer Monitors
• How It Works: Optical Drives
• How It Works: Hard Drives

Boolean Logic, Truth Tables and Karnaugh Maps

• Boolean Algebra #1
• Boolean algebra #2: Basic problems
• Boolean algebra #3: Basic problems
• Boolean algebra #4: Different terminology and notations
• Boolean algebra #5: Truth tables - introduction
• Boolean algebra #6: Truth tables - variables combinations
• Boolean algebra #7: Truth tables - example problems
• Boolean algebra #8: Truth tables - into expressions/statements
• Boolean algebra #9: truth tables - into expressions (continued)
• Boolean algebra #10: Truth tables - example

• Boolean algebra #11: Truth tables - example (continued)
• Boolean algebra #12: Karnaugh maps
• Boolean algebra #13: Karnaugh maps example (continued)
• Boolean algebra #14: Karnaugh maps - short summary
• Boolean algebra #15: Karnaugh maps - from expressions
• Boolean algebra #16: Karnaugh maps - from expressions (continued)
• Boolean algebra #17: Karnaugh maps - grouping
• Boolean algebra #18: Karnaugh maps - grouping (continued)
• Boolean algebra #19: Karnaugh maps - getting the result
• Boolean algebra #20: Karnaugh maps - getting the result (continued)
• Boolean algebra #21: Karnaugh maps - getting the result (continued)
• Boolean algebra #22: Karnaugh maps - final example
• Boolean algebra #23: DeMorgan's theorem - introduction
• Boolean algebra #24: DeMorgan's theorem - examples
• 
  Boolean algebra #25: DeMorgan's theorem - examples (continued)
• Boolean algebra #26: Sum of products (SOP) form
• Boolean algebra #27: Standard SOP form
• Boolean algebra #28: Standard SOP form (continued)
• Boolean algebra #29: Product of sums (POS) form
• Boolean algebra #30: Product of sums (POS) form (continued)
Web Tutorials
• Karnaugh Maps 1
• Karnaugh Maps 2
  

• Karnaugh Maps 3
  

Simplification of Boolean Logic

Boundedness Law

X + 1 = 1

X . 0 = 0

Absorption Law

X + (X . Y) = X

X . (X + Y ) = X

Elimination Law

 X + (X' . Y) = X + Y

X.(X' + Y) = X.Y

Unique Complement theorem

If X + Y = 1 and X.Y = 0 then X = Y'

Involution theorem

 X'' = X

0' = 1

Associative Properties

X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z

X . ( Y . Z ) = ( X . Y ) . Z

Duality Principle

Interchanging AND and OR operators and replace 0's by 1's and 1's by 0's.

Duality of X.Y+Z' = (X'+Y').Z

Minterms and Maxterms
Any boolean expression may be expressed in terms of either minterms or maxterms.

Literal
A literal is a single variable within a term which may or may not be complemented.

A minterm is the product of N distinct literals where each literal occurs exactly once.

A maxterm is the sum of N distinct literals where each literal occurs exactly once.

The minterms and maxterms for a two-variable expression is
A  B   Minterm  Maxterm
0   0   A'.B'       A+B
0   1   A'.B        A+B'
1   0   A.B'        A'+B
1   1   A.B         A'+B'

The minterms and maxterms for a three variable expression is
A B C Minterm  Maxterm
0  0 0 A'.B'.C'    A+B+C
0  0 1 A'.B'.C     A+B+C'
0  1 0 A'.B.C'     A+B'+C
0  1 1  A'.B.C    A+B'+C'
1   0 0 A.B'.C'   A'+B+C
1   0 1 A.B'.C   A'+B+C'
1   1  0 A.B.C'  A'+B'+C
1   1 1  A.B.C   A'+B'+C'

Advanced Level ICT 2012 Revision

ඔබ සයිබර් ත්‍රස්‌තවාදය ගැන අහල තිබෙනවද?

ඔබ සයිබර් ත්‍රස්‌තවාදය ගැන අහල තිබෙනවද? ඔබ ඒ ගැන දන්න බව අප දන්නවා. ඒත් ඔබේ මතකය අලුත් කරන්නට ඒ ගැන කෙටි විස්‌තරයක්‌ කරන්නම්. සයිබර් ත්‍රස්‌තවාදය කියන්නේ අනුන්ගේ වෙබ් අඩවිවල පාස්‌වර්ඩ් හොයාගෙන ඒවාට රිංගලා කරන කඩාකප්පල්කාරී වැඩවලටයි. මේ දිනවල ඉතා ප්‍රසිද්ධ වික්‌ලීක්‌ස්‌ වෙබ් අඩවියේ හිමිකරු ජුලියන් ඇසැන්ඡ් එවැනි සයිබර් ත්‍රස්‌තවාදියෙක්‌. හැබැයි ඔහු හොඳ ත්‍රස්‌තවාදියෙක්‌ ඇමරිකන් රාජ්‍ය දෙපාර්තමේන්තුවේ වෙබ් අඩවි සහ විද්යුත් තැපැල් අඩවිවලට රිංගූ ඔහු ඒවා තුළ තිබූ පණිවුඩ ලොවට හෙළි කරමින් ඇමරිකාවේ රෙදි ගලවන්නට පටන්ගෙන තිබෙනවා.

අද අප ඔබට කියන්නට යන්නේ රුසියාවෙන් වාර්තා වූ සයිබර් ත්‍රස්‌තයන් කිහිප දෙනෙකු ගැනයි. ඔවුන් රුසියවේ සිට ඇමරිකාවේ ජලසම්පාදන දෙපාර්තමේන්තුවේ වෙබ් අඩවිවලට රිංගලා එරට ඉලිනොයි ප්‍රාන්තයේ ජල සැපයුම අඩාල කළා. ඇමරිකාව, බ්‍රිතාන්‍යය, ජර්මනිය, ප්‍රංශය වැනි රටවල ජලසම්පාදනය සහ ජලාපවහනය පාලනය කෙරෙන්නේ පරිගණක තාක්‍ෂණයෙන්. මෙවැනි පරිගණක පද්ධතියක වැඩසටහනක්‌ ඉන්ටර්නෙට්‌ හරහා අවුල් කළ විට කළ හැකි හානිය අපමණයි. අඩු පීඩනයක්‌ දැරිය හැකි ජල නල වෙත වැඩි පීඩනයක්‌ සහිත ජල තොග මුදාහරිමින් එම ජලනල පිපිරවීම පවා කළ හැකියි.

රුසියන් සයිබර් ත්‍රස්‌තයන් පිරිසත් ඒ වගේ වැඩක්‌ කළා. ඔවුන් වැරදි විධාන ලබාදී ඉලිනොයි ප්‍රාන්තයේ ජල පොම්පයක්‌ සම්පූර්ණයෙන්ම විනාශ කළා. මේ නිසා නිවාස දහස්‌ ගණනකට ජලය නැති වුණා. ස්‌ප්‍රිංෆිල්ඩ් නගරයට වතුර සපයන පොම්පය ඔවුන් කැඩුවේ පොම්පය අරින වහන ලෙස කඩින් කඩ නියෝග නිකුත් කිරීමෙන්. මෙය සිදු වූයේ පසුගිය (නොවැම්බර්) 8 වැනිදා.

මෙහි තත්ත්වය වඩාත් බරපතල වූයේ කම්පියුටර් හැකර් කෙනෙක්‌ හෙවත් අනවසරයෙන් වෙබ් අඩවිවලට රිංගන තවත් පුද්ගලයෙක්‌ ඇමරිකන් ආරක්‍ෂක පද්ධතියේ බලය තමන් අතට පත්වූ බව වාර්තා කිරිමෙන්. මෙය ඉතා භයානක වැඩක්‌. ඔහු ඇත්තටම එබන්දක්‌ කර තිබුණා නම් විනඩි කිහිපයක්‌ තුළ ඇමරිකන් මිසයිල පද්ධතිය පරිගණක හරහා ක්‍රියාත්මක කර තුන්වන ලෝක යුද්ධය ඇතිකරන්නට ඔහුට හැකි වනවා.

ඇමරිකාවෙන් පිටත සිට ඇමරිකාවේ යටිතල පහසුකමක්‌ පරිගණක හරහා කඩාකප්පල් කළ පළමු අවස්‌ථාව මෙය බවයි වාර්තා වෙන්නේ. පරිගණක පද්ධති හැකර්ලාගෙන් බේරා ගැනීම සඳහා උපදෙස්‌ දෙන ඇමරිකන් උපදේශකයකු වන ජෝ වෙඩිස්‌ කියන්නේ හැකර්ලා මේ තරම් බලවත් වීම තුළ ඉමහත් තර්ජනයක්‌ හටගෙන ඇති බවයි. මේ ගැන ඇමරිකන් ෆෙඩරල් බියුරෝවත් ස්‌වදේශාරක්‍ෂක දෙපාර්තමේන්තුවත් පරීක්‍ෂණ පවත්වනවා.

සයිබර් ත්‍රස්‌තයන් අතට ඇමරිකන් ජල දෙපාර්තමේන්තුවේ පාස්‌වර්ඩ් ගියේ කොහොමද? ඒ පරිගණක පද්ධතියට ලොග් වෙන හැටි ඔවුන් දැනගත්තේ කොහොමද? විවිධ පාස්‌වර්ඩ් ලක්‍ෂ ගණනක්‌ යෙදීමෙන් පසු එයින් එකක්‌ අහඹු ලෙස හරියන්නට පුලුවන් බව සමහරුන්ගේ මතයයි. ඒත් හරියටම ඒ පාස්‌වර්ඩ් රටාව ඔවුන් අල්ලාගත්තේ කොහොමද කියන එකයි ප්‍රශ්නය.

මේ පාස්‌වර්ඩ් නිර්මාණය කරන්නේ ලොව පුරා ඇති සංවේදී කර්මාන්තශාලා (යුද අවි, ගුවන් යානා, රසායනික ද්‍රව්‍ය, ඖෂධ) සඳහා පරිගණක මෘදුකාංග සාදන ඇමරිකාවේ ඇප්ලයිඩ් කන්ට්‍රොaල් සොලියුෂන්ස්‌ ආයතනයයි. න්‍යෂ්ටික බලාගාරවලටත් තෙල් ළිං වලටත් මේ සමාගම මෘදුකාංග හදනවා.
පුපුරුවා හරින ලද වතුර පොම්පය කැඩුනේ ටිකෙන් ටික. එය දිනකට නියමිත ප්‍රමාණයට වඩා අරිමින් සහ වසමින් තිබුණා. පොම්ප පද්ධතිය ඇත්තේ ආවරණය කළ අධි ආරක්‍ෂක කුටියක්‌ තුළ නිසා එය කැඩෙමින් පවතින බව කවුරුවත් දැන සිටියේ නැහැ.

ඇමරිකාවේ මෙබඳු ස්‌වයංක්‍රීය ජලාපවාහන පද්ධති මිසයිල පද්ධති යනාදිය සඳහා මෘදුකාංග නිපදවන පෙර කී සමාගම එම මෘදුකාංගයට කියන්නේ Supervisory
Control and Data Acqnisition හෙවත් “ස්‌කාඩා” කියලයි. මේ මෘදුකාංගය හරහා පරිගණක පද්ධතියට ඇතුළත් වීමට හැකර්ලාට බැරි බවයි මෙතෙක්‌ කල් හිතාගෙන හිටියේ. ඒ නිසාම එයට පිවිසෙන හැකර්ලා පිළිබඳ සාක්‍ෂි සොයන වැඩපිළිවෙළකුත් තිබුණේ නෑ. ස්‌කාඩා මෘදුකාංගය හදන සමාගමේ ප්‍රකාශක පීටර් බුගාර්ඩ් පසුගියදා ප්‍රකාශ කළා වතුර පොම්පයක්‌ කඩනවාට වැඩි යමක්‌ කරන්නට හැකර්ලාට බැරි බව. ඒ එක්‌ක Prof යනුවෙන් පෙනී සිටි හැකර් කෙනෙක්‌ ඊමේල් හරහා ප්‍රකාශ කළා තමන් ටෙක්‌සාස්‌ ප්‍රාන්තයේ දකුණු හුස්‌ටන් නගරයේ යටිතල පහසුකම් පද්ධතියක පාස්‌ වර්ඩ්එක සොයාගත් බව. මෙය අප ජලය පිරිසිදු කරන පද්ධතියක්‌.

ස්‌කාඩා මෘදුකාංග පද්ධතියේ පාස්‌ වර්ඩ් එකට තිබෙන්නේ අකුරු ඉලක්‌කම් හෝ සලකුණු තුනක්‌ පමණක්‌ බව එම හැකර් ප්‍රකාශ කිරීමෙන් ඔහු ඒ ගැන ඉතා හොඳින් දන්නා බව ඔප්පු වුණා. ඊටත් අමතරව ඔහු එම වතුර පිරිපහදු යන්ත්‍රාගාරයේ පරිගණක ක්‍රියාකාරිත්වයට අදාළ ලින්ක්‌ හෙවත් සම්බන්ධ විය හැකි ක්‍රම කිහිපයකුත් ප්‍රකාශ කර තිබුණා.

ස්‌කාඩා පද්ධතිය සයිබර් ත්‍රස්‌තවාදයෙන් බේරා ගැනීම ගැන විද්‍යාඥයන්ට අලුතින්ම හිතන්නට වී තිබෙනවා. මන්දයත් පසුගිය වසරේදී ඉරානයේ යුරේනියම් සැකසුම් මධ්‍යස්‌ථානයේ පරිගණක මෘදුකාංග පද්ධතියට (එහි කේන්ද්‍රානුසාරකය හෙවත් Centrifuge එකට) Stuxnet නමින් හැඳින්වුණු වෛරස්‌ ප්‍රහාරයක්‌ එල්ල වීම නිසයි. යුරේනියම් යනු පරමාණු බෝම්බ සෑදීමට හැකි ද්‍රව්‍යයක්‌. න්‍යෂ්ටික බලාගාර ක්‍රියාත්මක කරන්නටත් යුරේනියම්වලට පුලුවන්. එවැනි දෙයක්‌ සකසන තැනකට සයිබර් ප්‍රහාරයක්‌ එල්ල වීම සෙල්ලමක්‌ නොවෙයි. මේ ප්‍රහාරය නිසා තම න්‍යෂ්ටික වැඩපිළිවෙළ ආපස්‌සට ගන්නට ඉරානයට සිදු වුණා. සමහරුන් කියන්නේ මේ වෛරස්‌ ප්‍රහාරයට වගකිව යුත්තා ඇමරිකානු හෝ ඊශ්‍රායල හැකර් කෙනකු බවයි.
ඇමරිකාවේ විදුලිබල බෙදාහැරීම ඉතාම පැරණි අබලන් එකක්‌. වසර 2007 දී සිදුවූ විදුලි බිඳවැටීමක්‌ සති දෙකක පමණ කාලයක්‌ පැවතුණා. එය ශීත Rතුවක්‌. විදුලි බලය නැතිව නිවාස උණුසුම් කරගැනීමට බැරිව ඇතැම් ඇමරිකානුවන් මිය ගියා. එසේ තිබියදී ඩීසල් බලාගාරයකට සයිබර් ප්‍රහාරයක්‌ එල්ල වුණොත් කොතැනින් නවතීද කියන්න බෑ. සමහර විට තුන්වන ලෝක යුද්ධය මෙබඳු සයිබර් ප්‍රහාරයකින් පටන් ගන්නටත් පුලුවන්. එය සිදුවන්නේ මෙහෙමයි. හැකර් කෙනකුට පුලුවන් ඇමරිකන් න්‍යෂ්ටික මිසයිල අංගනයක පාස්‌ වර්ඩ් එක සොයාගෙන ඒ හරහා “කමාන්ඩ් එකක්‌” එවා රුසියාවට පහර දෙන්නට රුසියාවත් එවිට ප්‍රති ප්‍රහාර දෙනු ඇති ඊළඟට ඒ රටවල් දෙකට සහය පිණිස දෙකෙට බෙදෙන ලෝක ජාතීන් මරා ගන්නට පටන් ගනීවි.
- අනුර සොලමන්ස්‌ / දිවයින

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How to avoid worst passwords in online security

This list of worst passwords compiled by SplashData. They are used in web sites, desktop applications and on mobiles and even in programs that help keep passwords secure. But with passwords like these below your security and privacy is under frequent threat:


1. password
2. 123456
3. 12345678
4. qwerty
5. abc123
6. monkey
7. 1234567
8. letmein
9. trustno1
10. dragon
11. baseball
12. 111111
13. iloveyou
14. master
15. sunshine
16. ashley
17. bailey
18. passwOrd
19. shadow
20. 123123
21. 654321
22. superman
23. qazwsx
24. michael
25. football
26. abc
27. goodboy
28. userid
29. userid1

Here are some tips to have strong passwords

1.Strong Master Password
Create a strong master password for your main email

2.Randomize Passwords
Use random passwords for websites with lengths of 15-20 . if you dont use them always, you can ask to send password to your master email.

2. Protect your master account. Never keept it's password on phone or your text book. Keep it in your mind and safe at home.

4. Dont reuse passwords in different accounts.

5.User IDs
Consider randomizing your username depending on what you are protecting. Never use your online banking user id anywhere.

5.Secret Qusetion
Your friends and relatives knows answers to default questions given by google and yahoo. Create your own privcy. What was my favorite food, drink when I was ill? combine information in a question. And make it random.


Username: 88N1iRQ1o9XM1Xi#4KLs
Password: [yBNSkG%/8r!:[g8O9N6

and
Use unicode characters from other languages
Use slangs from your own locality
Never use anything in dictionaries
Never use 123 or abc anywhere
Dont keep your passwords only in memory, have a recovery mechanism


Privacy Guide on Facebook


Privacy SettingsOnce logged into your account on Facebook,
Goto Account> Privacy Settings
1.Everyone - public with no restriction be carefull with this option
2.Friends of Friends - tricky , your friends may have fake friends
3.Friends Only - Make sure you know them and not fake ones
Account > Privacy Settings > Customize Settings > Things I Share

Pay a special attention to "Posts by me"
Account > Privacy Settings > Customize Settings > Things Others Share
What you actually want to see, make sure you don't waste your time

Account > Privacy Settings > Customize Settings > Contact Information

Omit your Email Address and Phone Number
Account > Privacy Settings > Customize Settings > Things I Share > Posts by Me
Select "Custom" and set your privacy requirement

Account > Privacy Settings > Customize Settings > Things Others Share > Photos and videos you're tagged in
Account > Privacy Settings > Customize Settings > Things Others Share > Suggest photos of me to friends
Account > Privacy Settings > Customize Settings > Things Others Share > Friends can check me in to Places
Account > Privacy Settings > Customize Settings > Things I Share > Edit privacy settings for existing photo albums and videos
Account > Privacy Settings > Apps, Games and Websites
Account > Account Settings > Account Security
Account > Account Settings > Facebook Ads
Edit my Profile
My Wall
Public Directory



1. Don't assuem that your virus guard to protect you 100%.

2. Don't Accessing an account through an e-mail link to provide sensitive information.
Criminals using “phishing” scams use emails to steal your logins, account numbers and other sensitive data. The web you use would look like genunie with same design and have a url like somedomain.com/facebook or even facebook1.com to disguise.
They look legitimate to users who are busy. "it’s pretty much impossible for people to know … if the e-mail is real or not" says an expert.

3. Use multiple passwords
If you use one password for all accounts and  If somebody manages to get hold of your password … they will have entry into all your accounts and impersonate you.

4. Downloading free software
Free software is good. Only download software from places you know are safe like sourceforge, cnet etc. Some “free” software comes loaded with spyware. They hijack your browser, port 80 and employs keystroke-capture programz to steal your personal data.

5. don't Click on pop-up ad that says your PC is not secure
They take you to spyware sites or have malicious software downloaded to your computer.
Instead, click on the tiny “close” button in the right corner. Best is to enable your browser’s pop-up blocker.

6. Don't use debt cards to Shop online
Use a separate card for your online purchases. Don’t shop online with debit cards, if stolen they offer no liability protection.

7. https and httpMake sure when you are entering your address and credit card information, that the site’s URL says “https”. https offers greater security than “http.”

OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) Model Animation

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) introduced by International Organization for Standardization. It standardizes the functions of a communications system in terms of layers. OSI groups similar communication functions into logical layers. An instance of a layer provides services to its upper layer instances while receiving services from the layer below.

For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of that path.










Layer 1: Physical layer
defines electrical and physical specifications for devices.
defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or optical cable, including the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, hubs, repeaters, network adapters and more.

Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.
Sharing communication resources effectively among multiple users.
Modulation (conversion from and to digital)

Layer 2: data link layer
Provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical layer.

IEEE 802.3 dominant wired LAN protocol (ETHERNET)
IEEE 802.11 the wireless LAN protocol

Layer 3: network layer
Provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network.
Performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer, sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible.

Layer 4: transport layer
Provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred.

Transport layer is like a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. The post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only.

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.

Layer 5: session layer
Controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.

Layer 6: presentation layer
Establishes context between application-layer entities, providing independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts.

Converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML.

Layer 7: application layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. Synchronizes communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer.

Some examples on TCP/IP stack:

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).

Important Combinational Logic Circuits

1.0 Decoder

Translates an n-bit input codeword into a larger m-bit output word,

where m is 2^n

2. Multiplexer (MUX)

Connects one of 2^n input data lines to one output line.

3. Demultiplexer (DeMUX)

Connects one input data line to one of 2^n

output lines.

4. Read-Only Memory (ROM)

A programmable truth table with n-bit address input and (selects a row), m-bit data output (typically m = 8, for one row)

5. ROM Types

Decoder (selects a word)

Encoder array (encodes or stores the word)

Diode-fuse array

MOS transistor-fuse array

Double gate MOS transistor array

6. ROM implementations.

a. ROM (mask)

b. PROM (programmable ROM):

c. EPROM (erasable-programmable ROM):

d. EEPROM (electrically-erasable PROM):

e. Flash (fast block-based EEPROM)

7. Random Access Memory (RAM) is a Rewritable truth table of cells

8. SLC

SEQUENTIAL LOGIC CIRCUITS

Are logic circuits whose outputs dpend upon state.

8.FLIP-FLOPS (LATCH)

a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information.

The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs.

9. Clocks

Outputs yield uniform rectangular waveforms when plotted against time.

Clock frequency = number of complete clock oscillations (cycles) per

second of time, expressed in Hertz or cycles per second (Hz=cycles/sec)

10 Ripple counter

a single JK-type flip-flop, with input fed from its own inverted output. This counter will increment once for every clock cycle

Asynchronous (ripple) counter – changing state bits are used as clocks to subsequent state flip-flops

Synchronous counter – all state bits change under control of a single clock

Decade counter – counts through ten states per stage

Up/down counter – counts both up and down, under command of a control input

Ring counter – formed by a shift register with feedback connection in a ring

11. Data Transfer Modes

1. PARALLEL-IN/PARALLEL-OUT (PIPO)

2. SERIAL-IN/SERIAL-OUT (SISO)

3. PARALLEL-IN/SERIAL-OUT (PISO)

4. SERIAL-IN/PARALLEL-OUT (SIPO)

12.0 Data Latch Register

a register circuit capable of performing only PIPO data transfers.

13. Shift Register

register circuit capable of performing SISO data transfers.

14. Bidirectional shift registers

contain additional logic circuitry to support left or

right data shifts.

An Algorithm to convert Decimal to any base

B=2 #base

place = 0

digit=[]

number = 105 #number to be converted

while (number > 0 )

{

digit[place] = number mod B

number = number div B

place = place + 1

} loop here

print digit[]

Write a python code for this

How Software agents work?

Software agents are computer programs that have specialized purpose and assigned tasks.

They can perform simple and repetitive tasks faster than human workers. They can be used for personal or commercial purposes, but can also be used in malicious attacks on users.

Google uses software agents (spiders/robots) to periodically visit web sites to index them in google search engine. An e commerce agent finds the best price for a phone model on e commerce sites

A Search engine Spider Simulator

Online chat agents search answers to keywords in a database to help users asking questions

A chatbot is a a computer program designed to simulate an intelligent conversation with human users.
Most chat bots simply scan for keywords within the input and pull a reply with the most matching answer from a database.

http://www.parnasse.com/drwww.shtml

search engines use robots to index web pages

Software agents (Bots) can be used to spread spam emails, viruses and scams.
Software Update Agents (Virus Guards)

How Googlebot Works ?
http://www.googleguide.com/google_works.html
Google's algorithm assigns a rank to each page based several factors,
1. how many times the keywords appear on the page.
2. Google looks for keywords in headings. K
3. Keywords in larger headings are more valuable than smaller headings
4. Google assigns a page rank every search result.
5. Search Position depends partially on number of other Web pages linking to target page. (vote)
6. Votes from a high-ranking Web page counts more
7. The more links a Web page sends out, the more diluted its voting power becomes.
Software Agents used in personalised information management, e commerce, interface design, computer games, and complex industrial processes. They are computer programs that can be delegated to do some tasks. They are mostly self-contained programs capable of controlling its own decision making and acting, based on its environment.

http://www.google.lk/search?q=software+agents&hl=en&biw=1366&bih=546&prmd=imvnsb&source=lnms&tbm=isch&ei=b6PGTu-sPMO4rAfKkuGoDg&sa=X&oi=mode_link&ct=mode&cd=2&ved=0CAsQ_AUoAQ

More :
Gopher agents:Execute straightforward tasks based on pre-specified rules and assumptions
- Inform when temperature rises by 10% from its mean position.
- Alert reorder stock items
Service performing agents
Execute a well defined task at the request of a user
- find the cheapest flight to Colombo

Predictive agentsProvides information or services to a user, without being asked
- monitor newsgroups on the INTERNET and return relevent discussions
• Autonomy: able to perform majority of tasks without direct human intervention and have a degree of control over their own actions and their own internal state.
• Social ability: able to interact, when appropriate, with other software agents and humans to solve problems
• Responsiveness: agents should understand their environment and respond to changes
• Proactiveness: agents takes automatic action where appropriate.

Boolean Algebra & Logic Gates for A/L ICT

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  Boolean Algebra & Logic Gates Start Up
  



• Boolean Algebra & Logic Gates 1
  



• Boolean Algebra & Logic Gates 2 (From GIT Book)
  



• Simple Questions on Logic Gates
  



• Boolean Algebra & Logic Gates (Advanced)
  
  



• Logic Gates Revision (Simple)
  

Boolean algebra or Boolean logic is a calculation of truth values, developed by George Boole in the 1840s. In ICT it resembles logical multiplication xy, addition x + y, and negation −x to build combined circuits.

Boolean logic or Boolean algebra is a logical calculus which has only two values, 'true' or 'false'.
Boolean Logic is defined as a logical system of operators - 'AND', 'OR' and 'NOT'. It is a way of comparing individual bits and used in computer construction, switching circuits, etc.

' denotes negative
Boolean Algebra Quiz

1. Give the relationship that represents the dual of the Boolean property A + 1 = 1?
(Note: * = AND, + = OR and ' = NOT)
1. A * 1 = 1
2. A * 0 = 0
3. A + 0 = 0
4. A * A = A
5. A * 1 = 1

2. Give the best definition of a literal?
1. A Boolean variable
2. The complement of a Boolean variable
3. 1 or 2
4. A Boolean variable interpreted literally
5. The actual understanding of a Boolean variable

3. Simplify the Boolean expression (A+B+C)(D+E)' + (A+B+C)(D+E) and choose the best answer.
1. A + B + C
2. D + E
3. A'B'C'
4. D'E'
5. None of the above

4.Which of the following relationships represents the dual of the Boolean property x + x'y = x + y?
1. x'(x + y') = x'y'
2. x(x'y) = xy
3. x*x' + y = xy
4. x'(xy') = x'y'
5. x(x' + y) = xy

5.Given the function F(X,Y,Z) = XZ + Z(X'+ XY), the equivalent most simplified Boolean representation for F is:
1. Z + YZ
2. Z + XYZ
3. XZ
4. X + YZ
5. None of the above

6. Simplification of the Boolean expression (A + B)'(C + D + E)' + (A + B)' yields which of the following results?
1. A + B
2. A'B'
3. C + D + E
4. C'D'E'
5. A'B'C'D'E'

7. Given that F = A'B'+ C'+ D'+ E', which of the following represent the only correct expression for F'?
1. F'= A+B+C+D+E
2. F'= ABCDE
3. F'= AB(C+D+E)
4. F'= AB+C'+D'+E'
5. F'= (A+B)CDE

8. An equivalent representation for the Boolean expression A' + 1 is
1. A
2. A'
3. 1
4. 0

9. Simplification of the Boolean expression AB + ABC + ABCD + ABCDE + ABCDEF yields which of the following results?
1. ABCDEF
2. AB
3. AB + CD + EF
4. A + B + C + D + E + F
5. A + B(C+D(E+F))

Answers
1. A * 0 = 0. The dual of any Boolean property may be obtained by interchanging all occurrences of the symbols (*,+,0,1) with the symbols (+,*,1,0). Beware of implicit AND operations (like xy); these ANDs are also converted to +. Therefore, the dual of x + 1 = 1 is: x*0 = 0.

2. 1 or 2
3. A + B + C
4. x(x' + y) = xy
5. Z + XYZ

6. A'B'
7. (A+B)CDE (DeMorgan's theorem twice)
8. 1
9. AB

AL ICT Binary, Hex, Ocal Numbers and Conversion Notes and Questions

Counting in Binary - Number Systems Work Sheet 1

Binary Numbers WorkSheet 2

Binary, Hex, Octal Number Systems and Conversions

Binary, Hex, Octal Number Systems Questions and Answers

2s Complement ....

More Binary Stuff....

They say that , there are 10 people in the world.
Those who know binary and those who don't.

Enjoy Binary ... The begining of ICT

How jQuery works and building Plug-ins

• 1) How jQuery works
  A basic introduction to jQuery and the concepts that you need to know to use it.
  
• 2) jQuery For Designers
  Examples of writing Unobtrusive
  
• JavaScript to add simple behaviour to a web page.
  
• 3) Building Your First jQuery Plug-in
  This tutorial will take you step by step through creating your very own truncation plug-in.
  
• 4) How to display tips by creating a JQuery plug-in
  We are going to learn how to create our custom jQuery plug-in to show tips on mouse over event on our desired elements. We will also be able to customize the appearance of the tip division for each kind of elements in the CSS code and much more.
  
• 5) Form validation with jQuery from scratch
  The tutorial covers building a lightweight, flexible solution from scratch. It won't be nearly as advanced and powerful as the official plug-in. Nevertheless it will help you learn something from jQuery.
  
• 6) Creating a Slick and Accessible Slide Show Using jQuery
  In this in-depth web development tutorial, you’ll learn how to create a usable and web accessible slideshow widget for your site using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript (jQuery) .
  
• 7) Create a Vertical Scrolling Menu with CSS and jQuery
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• 8) Horizontal Scrolling Menu made with CSS and jQuery
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• 9) Slide and hide with jQuery
  Create simple structure made of a div containing our buttons, we will use some image as buttons, and the section we want to hide/unhide.
  
• 10) Simple Taps with jQuery
  Write less code and create tabs easily with this jQuery plugin.
  
• 11) how to create a stunning and smooth popup using jQuery
  Nowadays, websites are more and more rich and interactive and users are becoming more and more critical with all things in websites. Using windows popup to show important information are in the air and we are going to learn how to create a stunning and great window popup from the scratch using jQuery in a simple and clean tutorial.
  
• 12) Create a smooth tabbed menu in jQuery
  Learn how to create a smooth tabbed menu with our lovely jQuery library. With simple and clean layout we can have a great tabbed menu for this websites.
  
• 13) How validate forms in both sides using php jQuery
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• 14) Improving search boxes with jQuery
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• 15) Submit a form without page refresh using jQuery
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• 16) jQuery tabbed interface tabbed structure menu tutorial
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• 17) Simple jQuery modal window tutorial
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• 19) Building modal panels with jQuery
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• 20) jQuery-rollovers-using-this
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• 21) jQuery image loader
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• 22) Disjointed Rollovers with jQuery
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• 23) Inline Image Enlargement with jQuery
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• 24) Ajaxify you web Pages using jQuery
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• 25) PHP Login Form using j
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• 26) Building a Light box with jQuery
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• 27) Simple jQuery image slide show with semi transparent caption
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• 28) jQuery image gallery news slider with caption tutorial
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• 29) Create an attractive jQuery menu with fade-in and fadeout effect
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• 30) create a vertical horizontal and diagonal sliding content website with jQuery
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• 31) Simple lava lamp menu tutorial with jQuery
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• 32) jQuery moving tab and sliding content tutorial
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• 33) create a stunning sliding door effect with jQuery
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• 35) jQuery-tetris
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• 36) jQuery Menu Roundup
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• 39) jQuery Thick box and ColdFusion Dynamic Image Resizing
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• 40) jQuery/PHP: Simple Random Text Generation Box
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• 41) how to use jQuery and Ajax.NET Professional together
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• 42) jQuery and
  
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• Google Maps mash up. In this tutorial, you will learn how to get started using jQuery inside the
  
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• 43) jQuery and
  
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  Learn how to store and retrieve points with using AJAX and a server-side language. This tutorial will use PHP/me on the server, but it is basic enough that re-writing in another language should not be difficult.
  
• 44) How to find the mouse position with jQuery
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• 45) Really simple live comment preview
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• 46) Creating an os web interface in jQuery
  Learn how to create the drag & drop interaction, the double click on icons and a basic taskbar with a start disabled button and a real clock of the system.
  
• 47) How to create a stunning and smooth popup using jQuery
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• 48) Create an amazing music player using mouse gestures hotkeys in jQuery
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• 49) Animated menus using jQuery
  Learn how to create an animated menu (very similar to Dragon Interactive menu) .
  
• 50) Set hover class for anything
  Hovering links and text with CSS is very easy but you cant hover everything with it. This tutorial makes you able to hover everything!
  
• 51) Characters remaining on an input field
  Learn how to create a counter on your input text.
  
• 52) Text resizing with jQuery
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• 53) Safer Contact Forms Without CAPTCHAs
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• 54) How to load content via Ajax in jQuery
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• 55) Creating Ajax websites based on anchor navigation
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• 56) Auto populating select boxes using jQuery Ajax
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• 57) Auto complete field with jQuery , JSON and PHP
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• 58) Create a stunning sliding door effect with jQuery
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• 59) jQuery thumbnail with zooming image and fading caption tutorial
  Learn how to build thumbnail gallery with zooming effect and fade-in and fadeout caption. This tutorial will walk you through the concept behind it and how to code it.
  
• 60) How to use jQuery Date picker plug-in
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• 61) How to use jQuery Week Calendar plug-in
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• 62) jQuery Visualize Plug-in: Accessible Charts & Graphs from Table Elements using HTML 5 Canvas
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• 63) Unit-Testing-with-jQuery-using-Fire Unit-QUnit.aspx
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• 64) jQuery UI Dialog w/Resizable iFrame
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• 65) Top 5 jQuery Modal Plug-in
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• 66) jQuery Flexigrid Using C#3.0 & LINQ
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• 67) jQuery menu roundup
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• 68) Formatting your twitter stream with jQuery
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• 69) Making a slide in menu using jQuery video tutorial
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• 70) Building a jQuery-Powered Tag-Cloud
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• 71) Create a Photo Admin Site Using PHP and jQuery
  Learn hot to create a photo site using PHP, jQuery, and AJAX.
  
• 72) Use jQuery with
  
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  Add outbound link tracking to a new or existing site. Provided that your links to other sites have the REL attribute set, you can track them very easily with some help from jQuery.
  
• 73) Adding Form validation to WordPress comments using jQuery
  When it comes to simpler user experience, having your form validation happen instantly on the same page is a lot cleaner than reloading pages and possibly losing some form content. In this tutorial I'll show you how to use jQuery to do some instant checking on an example comment form.
  
• 74) Create an apple style menu and improve it via jQuery
  Learn how to create extraordinary
  
• apple style menu.
  
• 75) Build a Basic Newspaper style layout with WordPress and jQuery
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• 76) Multiple file upload magic with unobtrusive java script
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• 77) Easy multi select transfer with jQuery
  Learn how to select multiple objects from a listbox.
  
• 78) Rounded Corners with jQuery
  

Tranfering data between computers in different locations was started as a military computer science experiment. Today as our technology evolved, data communication become information backbone of our society.
The little boxes we call modems, routers and switches were all born from a need to connect teletype machines together, transferring information started at slow 25 bits per second. At that rate, downloading 1MB might take about 4 days. But we download even full HD movies in real time on ffew hours in on .
ast connections.

JQUERY for Advanced Web Designing

Jquery is a Java Script Library to create web apllications using interactive interfaces. Jquery uses AJAX, DOM and CSS

See a Demo of Virtual Panorama

http://www.openstudio.fr/jquery-virtual-tour/

Jquery Quick Learning

Some Excellent jQuery Resources

jQuery Tutorials

1. jQuery Crash Course
2. Getting Started with jQuery
3. Multiple File Upload Magic
4.  jQuery in 15 minutes
5. jQuery for JavaScript programmers
6. Easy Ajax with jQuery
7. jQuery in 15 minutes
8. jQuery Tutorials for Designers
9. Wrapping Images With A Drop Shadow
10. Simplify Ajax development with jQuery
11. Rounded Corners
12. Getting Around The Minimum Height Glitch

13. Multiple Fancy Drop Caps

14. Semitransparent rollovers made easy with JQuery

15. Using JQuery to modify presentation while preserving document semantics

16. Fancy Drop Cap

17. Easy Multi Select Transfer with jQuery

18. Javascript Tooltips on Steroids

19. Edit In Place with AJAX

20. Style Sheet Switcheroo

21. Safer Contact Forms Without CAPTCHA’s
22. Photo Slider Tutorial
23. Text box hints
24. 5 JavaScript Tricks Made Easy with jQuery
25. JQuery Pop-up Menu Tutorial
26. A Quick Code Igniter and JQuery Ajax Tutorial
27. jQuery and XML revisited
28. What is JSONP?
29. Creating A Sliding Image Puzzle Plug-In
30. Slide out and drawer effect
31. Creating accessible charts using canvas and jQuery
32. jQuery liScroll – a jQuery News Ticker
33. Visual jQuery 1.1

jQuery Plugin Directoies

34. Visual jQuery 1.1
35. Plugins | jQuery Plugins
36. jQueryPlugins.com – The Home Of All jQuery Plugins
37.240 jQuery plugins

jQuery Video Tutorials

38. Jquery Smooth Scrolling Tutorial
39. jQuery AJAX forms Tutorial
40. swfupload ajax jquery drupal module image editor
41. jQuery 1.2.3
42. Drag and Drop JQuery + AJAX
43. jComboBox demo Tutorial

jQery Podcasts

44. Drupal Podcast No. 53: Javascript/JQuery in Drupal | Lullabot
45. Podcast 52: Javascript Libraries :: Boagworld

jQuery ebooks

46. jQuery Reference Guide
47. jQuery in Action

jQuery Cheat Sheets

48. Color Charge jQuery Cheat Sheet (PNG Image, 1313×900 pixels)
49. Charlotte web design jQuery Cheat Sheet (pdf)
50. Jquery Cheat Sheet 1.2. (pdf)

Further Reading

51. 50+ Amazing jQuery Examples
52. 24 ways: Unobtrusively Mapping Microformats with jQuery

53. A List Apart: Articles: Frameworks for Designers

54. mad.ly – JQuery Ajax + Rails

55. 1007 + Ajax/Javascript/Dhtml examples and demos to download

56. QuarkRuby: Why I moved from Prototype to jQuery

57. XML.com: jQuery and XML